In total, 119 animal bones and teeth were retrieved from Object 40 (Tables 1, 2). The vast majority of faunal remains (n = 110 specimens, weighing 2604.5 g) were found in layer SE 02 (Table 1). Hence, the following results concern mainly the material found in this layer.

Out of 110 identified faunal remains, 108 (98.2%) belong to domesticated species, while two fragments (1.8%) were assigned to the European hare (Lepus europaeus). Based on NISP, the dominant taxon was cattle (67.3%) followed by horse (24.6%), pig (5.5%), and sheep/goat (0.8%). These results were also confirmed by the weight analysis: cattle constituted the prevalent species (81.6%), followed by horse (17.3%), pig (0.8%), and sheep/goat (0.2%). Due to the very low number of finds, further analyses focus largely on cattle.

Bos primigenius f. taurus

Based on the epiphyses, adult cattle dominate (Table 3). The few single teeth recovered (Table 4) suggest the presence of two adult cattle individuals, one between 3–5 years (M₃0) and one between 5–7 years (M₃+). Concerning sexing, two castrated animals were identified (Table 5). Although morphometrically the population was homogenous, one scapula fragment was quite large and robust (Fig. 3).

Equus ferus f. caballus

Concerning other domesticated species, further information was gained about horses. The height at withers was reconstructed for one individual at 131.1 cm (Table 6).

Overall, 1050 faunal remains were excavated in Object 41 (Tables 7, 8). The majority of finds (n = 1028 specimens, 6048,5 g weight) derive from layer SE 02, thus investigations have been primarily focused on this layer. The identified faunal material exclusively showed domesticated taxa. Based on NISP, pigs dominated (78%), followed by cattle (17.7%), horse (3%), sheep/goat (1.1%) and chicken (0.2%). However, based on weight the dominant taxon was cattle (58.6%), followed by horse (25.2%), pig (15.1%), sheep/goat (1.1%) and chicken (0.01%). Additionally, four partially preserved skeletons of non-adult pigs were documented.

Bos primigenius f. taurus

The body part representation (NISP) of cattle displayed a very high number of cranial elements (lacking of horn cores), ribs, and vertebrae. Long bones, shoulder, and pelvic bones, as well as small bones, including carpals, tarsals, and phalanges, were found in lower numbers (Table 7). Concerning age distribution, the study of the epiphyses exhibited the dominance of adult individuals (Table 9). This was also confirmed by the examination of six teeth (Table 4), one tooth derives from an individual between 6 months and 1 year (Pd₄+), two teeth point to animals between 3 and 5 years (M₃0), and three teeth suggest animals between 5 and 7 years (M₃+). Moreover, sex estimation showed a slight prevalence of castrated individuals (Table 5). Finally, the height at withers was calculated between 111.9 cm and 122.5 cm (Table 6).

Sus scrofa f. domestica

The skeletal element distribution for pigs exhibited surprising similarities to cattle indicating a higher number of cranial elements (Table 7). Concerning age distribution, the examination of the epiphyses showed the prevalence (96.3%) of non-adult individuals (Table 9); this was also confirmed by the presence of six milk teeth (Pd⁴/₄) (Table 4). Only two permanent third molars were documented, indicating animals between 1.5 and 2 years (M₃0). Due to the high number of non-adult pigs, sex distribution and morphometric analyses were not conducted.

The four pig skeletons were found together with the other faunal remains in the trenches of the enclosure; therefore, mixing with single pig remains cannot be excluded. Two skeletons of pigs were found in the northern trench of the enclosure (Fig. 4A, C), one in the eastern trench (Fig. 4D) and one in the western trench (Fig. 4B). The four partially preserved skeletons exhibited notable differences concerning their state of preservation (Fig. 4). Skeleton (A) exhibited the worst preservation. The highest numbers of bones were provided by skeletons (C) and (D), representing all major body regions.

Concerning aging, the unfused epiphyses indicate the presence of four non-adult pig individuals. The presence of teeth in skeletons B and D enabled A more precise age determination: skeleton (B) exhibited one premolar 4 with advanced wear (Pd₄+++), two first molars (M₁) in wear and a second molar (M₂) not in wear, indicating an age between 6 and 8/9 months. Skeleton (D) exhibited four significantly worn premolars (Pd⁴/₄+++) and two first molars (M₁) with low wear level, suggesting an age between 6 and 7 months.

Equus ferus f. caballus

Concerning the remaining faunal material, additional information could be obtained for horses. The examination of the epiphyses showed primarily adult individuals (n = 19). Finally, the height at withers was reconstructed for one individual at 128.6 cm (Table 6).

The faunal remains from Objects 40 and 41 exhibited a high number of chop marks, indicating disarticulation, dismemberment, portioning, and marrow extraction. Only a few cut marks were noted on fragments of scapulae from horses.

Chop marks on cattle crania suggest the removal of horns, whereas chops on the occipital condyles and the mandibles indicate additional separation. Chop marks on the thoracic vertebrae suggest the removal of the processus spinosus, whereas ribs were chopped in smaller portions. Long bones were butchered at different parts on the midshaft and sometimes at the joints. Additionally, longitudinal chop marks on radius, tibia, and metapodials suggest marrow extraction. Scapula remains were mainly chopped longitudinally.

Concerning pigs, few chop marks were noted on crania, which were mostly longitudinally chopped. Chop marks on mandibles mainly suggest dismemberment. Ribs were chopped in smaller parts, whereas long bones and metapodials exhibited diagonal and transversal chops on the midshaft and sometimes on the joints. Diagonal and transversal chop marks were found on the scapula and pelvis, mainly on the acetabulum and foramen obturatum. No butchery marks were found on the four skeletons of non-adult pigs.

Similar to cattle and pigs, chop marks on the mandibles of horses were connected to dismemberment. Chops on thoracic vertebrae suggest the removal of the processus spinosus. Diagonal and transversal chop marks were noted on scapulae. Additionally, oblique cut marks were documented on the spina scapulae. Long bones were mainly chopped on the midshaft and the joints, but tibia and metapodials were also longitudinally split.

This section contains the most important archaeozoological observations from Objects 40 and 41 and compares them with the already published archaeozoological results from the settlement of Roseldorf-Sandberg (Bruckner-Höbling 2009) and the “Great Sanctuary” (Object 1) (Abd el Karem 2013).

The comparative study of the faunal assemblages from Roseldorf provides significant insights into ritual (atypical) and daily (typical, regular) contexts – a separation which is not always straightforward. Ritual practices might also occur during ‘daily business’ and vice versa, and rituals may also be influenced by daily experiences or techniques. Furthermore, the archaeozoological results from Objects 40 and 41 can significantly contribute to the discussion about the function of the square enclosures of the La Tène period (Cereda et al. 2023). For general considerations concerning trench excavation, volume estimation, and natural/artificial filling of square enclosures see Erich Draganits und Alexander Preh (Draganits and Preh 2014).

Species composition (Fig. 5)

Remains of sheep/ goat (40.7%, NISP data) dominated in the settlement of Roseldorf, followed by pigs (39.3%) and cattle (15.9%). The three ritual sites show contrasting species compositions: in Object 40 as well as in layer 3 of the “Great Sanctuary” cattle and horses were most common, whereas in Object 41 pigs clearly prevailed.

In many La Tène period settlements, cattle constitute the economically most important domesticated species (Pucher 1998, 1999, 2006; Schmitzberger 2010; Pucher et al. 2015; Saliari and Trebsche 2023). In Roseldorf, the weight data indicate that cattle were the most significant meat suppliers. Pigs also played an important role in several La Tène lowland settlements (Saliari and Trebsche 2023). They are considered to represent ideal meat suppliers, especially in the context of urbanization. Furthermore, pigs together with cattle constituted the two most frequent species deposited in graves of the La Tène period (e.g. Leskovar 1996; Saliari et al. 2016; Ramsl 2020; Saliari 2021).

In contrast, the archaeozoological record shows that remains of horses were usually underrepresented, with notable exceptions (e.g. Méniel 2001; Teegen 2002; Toškan 2011), including layer 3 of the “Great Sanctuary” (Abd el Karem 2013). Horses were prestigious animals, connected to power and wealth. Their high numbers in the “Great Sanctuary” and in Object 40 (“Small sanctuary”) highlight the exceptional character of these assemblages.

Age profiles (Fig. 6)

Cattle remains from the settlement and the “Great Sanctuary” (Object 1) indicate that cattle were slaughtered at a later stage (older than 7 years) after secondary exploitation. In contrast – although the number of teeth recovered from Objects 40 and 41 was low – the existing data show that cattle were mainly slaughtered as young adults, suggesting an emphasis on very good meat quality.

Concerning pigs, there is a clear prevalence of non-adult individuals in Object 41 (Fig. 6), whereas in the “Great Sanctuary” (Object 1) remains of pigs were mainly represented by (young) adults. The local archaeozoological record from settlements of this period shows the prevalence of adult pigs (Saliari and Trebsche 2023), most of them usually slaughtered at the best age for meat consumption (1.5–2 years) as young adults. Thus, the prevalence of non-adult pigs is quite remarkable; only at the La Tène period sanctuary in Frauenberg near Leibnitz (Styria, LT C2−D) similar results were obtained (Grill 2009). Therefore, the exceptionally young age stages noted in Object 41 for pigs suggest the central role of these animals in the rituals performed there. This is further highlighted by the deposition of four skeletons of piglets. The presence of non-adult pigs from Object 41 might also provide more information about the character of the rituals that took place there. In several cases, (young) pigs have been associated with fertility, abundance, and luck (Green 1992: 119 p.; Fontana 1993: 93 p.; Phillips 2007: 373–387).

Sex distribution (Fig. 7)

Concerning sexing, cattle was the only species that could be compared among the different assemblages in Roseldorf. The majority of adult cattle remains in ritual assemblages (Objects 40, 41, and “Great Sanctuary”) and the settlement of Roseldorf belonged to castrated individuals.

Skeletal element distribution (Figs 8, 9)

Although the low number of faunal remains from Object 40 did not allow further insights into this aspect, the single elements found in Object 41 showed a strict preference of non-meaty regions for both cattle and pigs. This is in great contrast to the assemblages of the “Great Sanctuary” (Object 1), where cattle and horses (the prevalent species) were mainly represented by meaty regions (fore and hind limbs) and pigs by whole individuals (Abd el Karem 2013). Finally, concerning the settlement of Roseldorf all domesticated species were represented by all major body regions, suggesting the presence of whole animals (Bruckner-Höbling 2009).

Animal populations (morphotypes)

Two cattle morphotypes were documented in the settlement of Roseldorf and the “Great Sanctuary”: the small-sized cattle, which was widely distributed during the La Tène period (Pucher 2013) and the exotic cattle population coming from the south, which was significantly larger and more robust (Abd el Karem 2013). New genetic analyses on remains of the large-sized cattle from the “Great Sanctuary” confirmed the presence of an allochthonous cattle population (Saliari et al. 2023b).

One cattle scapula from Object 40 seems to be significantly larger and more robust than the other scapulae (Fig. 3). However, the measurements are in the range of variation for both populations (Table 10); some castrated individuals of the small-sized cattle could reach similar values. Due to the fragmented state of the bone, it was not possible to separate the two morphotypes based on morphological criteria (compare with Pucher 2018). Thus, it remains an open question to which cattle population this scapula fragment belonged. In Object 41, only the small-sized cattle morphotype was recorded. The height at withers for female and castrated cattle obtained from Objects 40 and 41 falls in the range of variation of the small-sized morphotype (Bruckner-Höbling 2009; Abd el Karem 2013).

Additional data concerning morphotypes were obtained for horses. The estimated height at withers (128.6 and 131 cm) is similar to the values recorded for the “Great Sanctuary” (113.8 and 132.5 cm; Abd el Karem 2013) and the settlement (between 116 and 131 cm; Bruckner-Höbling 2009) suggesting the presence of small-sized horses, typical for this period.

Butchery patterns (Fig. 10)

Significant differences were documented concerning the butchery patterns observed on bones of cattle and horses. Although no remarkable variations were noted between the ritual assemblages of the “Great Sanctuary” and the settlement (Abd el Karem 2013), specific bones of cattle and horses from Objects 40 and 41 exhibited different butchery patterns, especially in comparison with the settlement.

In Objects 40 and 41, scapulae, tibiae, and metapodials of cattle were split longitudinally (Fig. 10), whereas transverse chops were noted on the same bones from the settlement (Bruckner-Höbling 2009). Similar observations were made for horses: in Objects 40 and 41, tibiae and metapodials were longitudinally split, suggesting marrow extraction, not recorded from the assemblages of the settlement. Additionally, the scapulae of horses from Object 40 exhibited cut marks that were not found on the settlement material.

Preservation

Animal remains from the settlement and the ritual assemblages in Roseldorf show clear differences concerning preservation. Some animal bones from the settlement were burnt and exhibited gnawing marks (mainly by dogs), in contrast, the faunal remains from contexts with ritual character did not exhibit similar modifications.

Seasonality

The four skeletons of piglets excavated in Object 41 allowed for first time information about the season during which the ritual activities were performed in this square enclosure. The estimation of the season of slaughter was based on the age at death reconstructed from the eruption and wear stages of teeth (Wright et al. 2014). The milk teeth from two partial skeletons (B, D) suggest the presence of animals aged between 6 and 9 months. Pigs originate from the European wild boar and thus the reproductive cycles might be quite similar, especially for the early forms of pigs. Considering that spring births are most common (e.g. Lauwerier 1983) the ritual activities in Object 41 likely took place during late autumn or early winter.

Faunal remains have been widely used as indicators of social identity, status, and differentiation (e.g. Ekroth – Wallensten 2013). Archaeozoological material from settlements provides vital information on socioeconomic organisation, transformations, and changes (e.g. Trixl 2019; Trentacoste 2020; Aniceti 2024) whereas material from ritual contexts – as is the case for Objects 40 and 41 – reflects a deliberate selection of animals that were used for the rituals (e.g. Jones O’Day 2004; Méniel 2008; Saliari et al. 2018). So far, the comparative study of the faunal remains from Roseldorf deriving from assemblages that have been archaeologically interpreted as “ritual” shows significant faunistic differences not only to the settlement of Roseldorf, but also to other La Tène period settlements (Saliari and Trebsche 2023), suggesting different mechanisms of animal selection.

Based on the animal remains, the ritual activities that took place in the two square enclosures (Objects 40 and 41) were important for the participants. Keeping in mind the local archaeozoological record for the La Tène period (Saliari and Trebsche 2023), several observations indicate costly rituals from an animal husbandry point of view. The most important characteristics are: a) the presence of young castrated cattle (Object 40), b) the high number of horses (Object 40), c) the clear prevalence of non-adult pigs (Object 41) and d) the possible presence of an exotic large-sized cattle morphotype (Object 40).

The slaughter of castrated cattle individuals as young adults means that no secondary exploitation took place – for one of the economically most valuable species in prehistory (Saliari and Trebsche 2023). Additionally, even if the presence of the large-sized cattle from the south cannot be confirmed with certainty for Object 40, cattle remains from the settlement and the “Great Sanctuary” have provided clear evidence for cattle imports (Abd el Karem 2013; Saliari et al. 2023b). Current data show that this large-sized cattle morphotype was quite rare in the La Tène period in present-day Austria (Saliari et al. 2023b). Thus, the acquisition of these cattle would have been difficult and/or expensive. Similar considerations can be applied for the horses, which were – and still are – expensive to keep and therefore not surprisingly connected with prestige, power, and wealth. Finally, as it has been aforementioned, the high number of non-adult pigs (Object 41) is also quite exceptional (Saliari and Trebsche 2023).